C-Section 2014

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Notes on PROSPECT recommendations

PROSPECT provides clinicians with supporting arguments for and against the use of various interventions in postoperative pain based on published evidence and expert opinion. Clinicians must make judgements based upon the clinical circumstances and local regulations. At all times, local prescribing information for the drugs referred to must be consulted.Grades of recommendation (GoR) are assigned according to the overall level of evidence (LoE) on which the recommendations are based, which is determined by the quality and source of evidence.  

Grades of recommendation (GoR) based on source and level of evidence (LoE): Summary table

An explanation of how study quality assessments are performed to determine the LoE and GoR can be found at the following link: C-Section: levels of evidence and grades of recommendation. The AGREE II instrument (Brouwers 2010) is used internationally to assess the methodological rigour and transparency of practice guidelines. As far as possible, the methodology of the PROSPECT C-Section review meets the requirements of ‘Domain 3: Rigour of development’ of the AGREE II instrument:
  • Systematic methods were used to search for evidence.
  • The criteria for selecting the evidence are clearly described.
  • The strengths and limitations of the body of evidence are clearly described.
  • The methods for formulating the recommendations are clearly described.
  • The health benefits, side effects, and risks have been considered in formulating the recommendations.
  • There is an explicit link between the recommendations and the supporting evidence.
  • The guideline has been externally reviewed by experts prior to its publication. [The evidence and recommendations will be submitted for peer-review after publication on the PROSPECT website]
  • A procedure for updating the guideline is provided. [Methodology is provided so that the systematic review can be updated as required]
 
Summary recommendations

Pre-operative interventions that are recommended for C-Section

Note: Unless otherwise stated, ‘pre-operative’ refers to interventions applied before surgical incision

Note: Analgesics should be administered at the appropriate time
(pre- or intra-operatively) to provide sufficient analgesia in the early recovery period

Oral gabapentin

·        A single dose of pre-operative oral gabapentin is recommended (GoR A) for improving postoperative pain relief (LoE 1)

Anaesthetic techniques and co-administered analgesics

Anaesthetic techniques: Combined spinal-epidural anaesthesia or spinal anaesthesia

·        Combined spinal-epidural anaesthesia or spinal anaesthesia are recommended (GoR A) based on procedure-specific evidence (LoE 1)

·        There is no evidence of analgesic benefit to recommend general anaesthesia over neuraxial anaesthesia (i.e., epidural anaesthesia, spinal anaesthesia, and combined spinal epidural anaesthesia), due to lack of direct comparative studies focusing on postoperative analgesia (GoR D).

·        However, neuraxial anaesthesia techniques are recommended for safety reasons (e.g., neuraxial anaesthesia obviates the need for airway manipulation and avoids the postoperative sedative effects of general anaesthetics) (GoR D)

Intrathecal opioid analgesia

·        Intrathecal morphine below 200 µg is recommended if the patient has received spinal anaesthesia (GoR A) based on procedure-specific evidence for improved postoperative analgesia (LoE 1)

·        However, due to opioid-related side effects, including delayed respiratory depression, alternative analgesic techniques should be considered

Epidural opioid analgesia

·        Epidural opioids are recommended if the patient has received epidural anaesthesia (GoR A) based on procedure-specific evidence for improved postoperative analgesia (LoE 1)

·        However, due to opioid related side effects, including delayed respiratory depression, alternative analgesic techniques should be considered

Surgical techniques that are recommended for C-Section

Surgical techniques: Transverse abdominal incision and non-closure of the peritoneum

·        Transverse abdominal incision is recommended over vertical incision (GoR A, LoE 1). Amongst transverse incisions the Joel-Cohen incision and similar modifications are superior to the Pfannenstiel incision for outcomes related to postoperative pain (GoR A, LoE 1)

·        Non-closure of the peritoneum is recommended (GoR A) based on procedure-specific evidence for postoperative analgesia (LoE 1)

Intraoperative interventions that are recommended for C-Section

Note: Unless otherwise stated, ‘intra-operative’ refers to interventions applied after incision and before wound closure. In C-Section, ‘post-delivery’ refers to administration after the umbilical cord is clamped and the baby is delivered.

Note: Analgesics should be administered at the appropriate time
(pre- or intra-operatively) to provide sufficient analgesia in the early recovery period

Post-delivery
IV NSAIDs

·        Post-delivery NSAIDs are recommended (GoR A) based on procedure-specific evidence (LoE 1), even in breastfeeding women (LoE 3)

Post-delivery
IV paracetamol

·        Post-delivery paracetamol is recommended (GoR A) based on procedure-specific evidence (LoE 1)

Post-delivery iliohypogastric and ilioinguinal blocks

·        Bilateral iliohypogastric and ilioinguinal blocks are recommended (GoR A) based on procedure-specific evidence for postoperative analgesia (LoE 1)

Post-delivery bilateral TAP blocks

·        Bilateral TAP blocks are recommended (GoR A) based on procedure-specific evidence for postoperative analgesia (LoE 1)

Post-delivery wound infiltration with local anaesthetics

·        Wound infiltration with local anaesthetics is recommended (GoR A) based on procedure-specific evidence (LoE 1)

Postoperative interventions that are recommended for C-Section

Note: ‘Postoperative’ refers to interventions applied at or after wound closure

Note: Analgesics should be administered at the appropriate time
(pre- or intra-operatively) to provide sufficient analgesia in the early recovery period

Oral NSAIDs

·        Postoperative NSAIDs are recommended (GoR A) based on procedure-specific evidence (LoE 1), even in breastfeeding women (LoE 3)

Oral paracetamol

·        Postoperative paracetamol is recommended (GoR A) based on procedure-specific evidence (LoE 1)

Systemic opioids as rescue analgesia

·        Systemic opioids provide effective analgesia (GoR A, LoE 1), but are only recommended as rescue analgesics due to side effects (GoR D)

Continuous wound infusion with local anaesthetics

·        Continuous wound infusion with local anaesthetics is recommended (GoR A) based on procedure-specific evidence (LoE 1)


Overall Recommendations: Pain Management for Elective Caesarean Section Surgery

Pre-operative 

Oral gabapentin

Pre-/intra-operative anaesthetic technique

CSEA or SpA*

Intra-operative, post-delivery

IV paracetamol + IV NSAID #

Wound infiltration with LA or TAP blocks or iliohypogastric/ilioinguinal blocks

Surgical technique

Transverse incision†

Non-closure of peritoneum

Postoperative

Oral paracetamol + oral NSAID + systemic opioid as rescue

Continuous wound infusion with LA

* IT morphine/epidural opioids are recommended, but alternative analgesic techniques such as wound infiltration with LA, TAP block, iliohypogastric and ilioinguinal blocks should be considered to avoid the potential opioid-related side effects of neuraxial opioids

# IV paracetamol and IV NSAID may not be necessary if neuraxial opioids are used

† Amongst transverse incisions, the Joel-Cohen incision and similar modifications are superior to the Pfannenstiel incision for outcomes related to postoperative pain


Not recommended for C-Section

Dexamethasone

Pre-operative dexamethasone cannot be recommended at this time (GoR D) based on limited procedure-specific evidence

Neuraxial clonidine

Neuraxial clonidine is not recommended (GoR D), although procedure-specific evidence suggests it provides superior analgesia, because of side effects (e.g. hypotension)

Ketamine

Ketamine cannot be recommended at this time (GoR D) based on inconsistent procedure-specific evidence

TENS

TENS is not recommended (GoR D) based on limited procedure-specific evidence

Wound infiltration with NSAIDs

Wound infiltration with NSAIDs is not recommended at this time (GoR D) due to limited comparative data with systemic administration

Continuous wound infusion with NSAIDs

Continuous wound infusion with NSAIDs is not recommended (GoR D) based on limited procedure-specific evidence

Overall Recommendations: Pain Management for Elective Caesarean Section Surgery

Pre-operative 

Oral gabapentin

Pre-/intra-operative anaesthetic technique

CSEA or SpA*

Intra-operative, post-delivery

IV paracetamol + IV NSAID #

Wound infiltration with LA or TAP blocks or iliohypogastric/ilioinguinal blocks

Surgical technique

Transverse incision†

Non-closure of peritoneum

Postoperative

Oral paracetamol + oral NSAID + systemic opioid as rescue

Continuous wound infusion with LA

* IT morphine/epidural opioids are recommended, but alternative analgesic techniques such as wound infiltration with LA, TAP block, iliohypogastric and ilioinguinal blocks should be considered to avoid the potential opioid-related side effects of neuraxial opioids

# IV paracetamol and IV NSAID may not be necessary if neuraxial opioids are used

† Amongst transverse incisions, the Joel-Cohen incision and similar modifications are superior to the Pfannenstiel incision for outcomes related to postoperative pain


PROSPECT C-Section Subgroup and Working Group process

For each review, a Subgroup of the PROSPECT Working Group performs an initial evaluation of the evidence and also drafts clinical practice statements and recommendations, which are then discussed by the whole Working Group before a final consensus is reached. For the C-Section review, the Subgroup members were:
  • Professor Marc Van De Velde (PROSPECT Working Group member)
  • Professor Girish Joshi (PROSPECT Working Group member)
  • Professor Narinder Rawal (PROSPECT Working Group member)
Dr Thomas Jaschinski (IFOM - Institut für Forschung in der Operativen Medizin, Universität Witten/Herdecke, Köln, Germany) provided support in conducting the literature search, preparing the evidence summary and coordinating the Subgroup and Working Group reviews of the evidence to prepare the final recommendations. The recommendations for postoperative pain management in C-Section were voted on by nine Working Group members to show the strength of consensus. The results of each vote are indicated within the PROSPECT recommendations sub-folders.

Literature search

  • Systematic review of the literature from 1966–April 2014 using MEDLINE and EmBASE, following the protocol of the Cochrane Collaboration
  • Inclusion of randomised/controlled studies assessing analgesic, anaesthetic or operative techniques in C-Section and reporting pain assessment, required analgesia or adverse events (C-Section: Inclusion criteria, C-Section: Search strategy)
  • 137 studies included (C-Section: Included studies)
  • 139 studies excluded after full-text screening (C-Section: Excluded studies)
  • The most common reason for exclusion was that the study did not investigate an intervention affecting postoperative pain (63 studies)
C-Section: Sources and levels of evidence (LoE) determine the grades of recommendation (GoR)

GoR are assigned according to the overall LoE, which is determined by the quality of studies cited, the consistency of evidence and the source of evidence:
C-Section: levels of evidence and grades of recommendation

Sources of evidence in PROSPECT

The evidence for prospect is derived from three separate sources, and this evidence is taken into consideration by the prospect Working Group to determine the prospect recommendations:
  • Procedure-specific evidence derived from the systematic reviews of the literature
  • Transferable evidence from comparable procedures, or from other relevant sources, identified by the members of the prospect Working Group
  • Current practice – A commentary on the interventions from the members of the prospect Working Group
  • Practical prospect recommendations are based on all the information
Study quality assessment
For the C-Section review, the quality of procedure-specific evidence has been assessed according to NICE methodology, to determine the possibility of selection bias, performance bias, attrition bias and detection bias (http://www.nice.org.uk/article/pmg6b).

Quality indicators used to determine the LoE of individual studies:
  • Allocation concealment: indicates whether there was adequate prevention of foreknowledge of treatment assignment by those involved in recruitment (in the table below, A=adequate, B=unclear, C=inadequate, D=not used). Empirical research has shown that trials with inadequate or unclear allocation concealment report significantly greater estimates of treatment effect than those trials in which concealment was adequate (Chalmers 1983, Schulz 1995, Moher 1998). Allocation concealment was found to be more important for preventing bias than other aspects of study quality, such as generation of the allocation sequence and double-blinding (Chalmers 1983, Schulz 1995, Moher 1998, HigginsandGreen 2005, http://handbook.cochrane.org/)
  • Statistical analyses and patient follow-up: indicates whether statistical analyses were reported, and whether patient follow-up was greater or less than 80%.
  • Numerical scores (total 1–5) for study quality: assigned using the method proposed by Jadad 1996, to indicate whether a study reports appropriate randomisation, double-blinding and statements of possible withdrawals. Empirical research found that low-quality trials were associated with an increased estimate of treatment benefit compared with high-quality trials (Moher 1998)
Study quality assessments for the C-Section review are summarised:
For systematic reviews, a critical appraisal was performed to determine the LoE:


Quantitative analyses

No meta-analyses were performed due to a limited number of studies of homogeneous design that reported similar outcome measures. Therefore, the procedure-specific evidence was only assessed qualitatively.

Transferable evidence

Transferable evidence has not been included in the C-Section review as there was sufficient procedure-specific evidence on which to base the recommendations for the most common analgesic interventions.
Topics for future research
  • Transcutaneous (Electrical) Nerve Stimulation (TNS or TENS)
  • Transversus abdominis plane blocks (TAP block)
  • Other abdominal wall local anaesthetic nerve blocks
  • Postoperative non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) wound infiltration
  • Preoperative dexamethasone
List of abbreviations

CG

control group

CS

caesarean section

CSEA

combined spinal-epidural anaesthesia

EA

epidural anaesthesia

EVE

epidural volume extension

GA

general anaesthesia

h

hours

IG

intervention group

IHII

iliohypogastric-ilioinguinal

IM

intramuscular

iPCA

intravenous patient controlled analgesia

IQR

interquartile range

IT

intrathecal

IV

intravenous

LoE

level of evidence

MD

mean difference

n. r.

not reported

PACU

post-anaesthesia care unit

PO

peroral

rg.

range

SEM

standard error of mean

SpA

spinal anaesthesia

TENS

transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation

mEq

milliequivalent

PCA

patient controlled analgesia

PCEA

patient-controlled epidural analgesia

POD

postoperative day

PONV

postoperative nausea and vomiting

POW

postoperative week

SMD

standardised mean difference

VAS

visual analogue scale

wk.

weeks

yr.

years


PROSPECT Recommendations

  • A single dose of pre-operative oral gabapentin is recommended (GoR A) for improving postoperative pain relief (LoE 1)
  • Consensus agreement 100% (9/9)

C-Section-Specific Evidence

  • The administration of oral gabapentin 300 mg 2 h before surgery during spinal anaesthesia (without fentanyl) was superior to placebo capsule combined with fentanyl 10 µg during spinal anaesthesia for pain relief and time to first analgesic request Najafi Anaraki and Mirzaei 2014
  • A single pre-operative dose of oral gabapentin 600 mg compared to placebo reduced post-caesarean pain and increased maternal satisfaction Moore et al 2011
  • A single pre-operative dose of either 300 mg or 600 mg oral gabapentin did not improve post-caesarean pain management and maternal satisfaction (Study was underpowered) Short et al 2012
  • Gabapentin study details Click here for more information

PROSPECT Recommendations

  • Pre-operative dexamethasone cannot be recommended at this time (GoR D) based on limited procedure-specific evidence
  • Consensus agreement 100% (9/9)

C-Section-Specific Evidence

  • Dexamethasone 10 mg given intravenously before surgery decreased postoperative pain with movement at 1 h, 6 h, 12 h and 24 h, but not at 2 h and 3 h, compared with placebo. Although the cumulative incidence of PONV was significantly lower in women receiving dexamethasone, there were no significant differences in PONV at specific assessment time points Cardoso et al 2013
  • Intravenous dexamethasone 8 mg administered before skin incision was superior to placebo in pain scores at rest and on movement between 6 and 24 h, but not before. However, there was no significant difference in the consumption of supplemental analgesia Wu et al 2007
  • Dexamethasone study details Click here for more information

PROSPECT Recommendations

  • Combined spinal-epidural anaesthesia or spinal anaesthesia are recommended (GoR A) based on procedure-specific evidence (LoE 1)
  • Consensus agreement 100% (9/9)
  • There is no evidence of analgesic benefit to recommend general anaesthesia over neuraxial anaesthesia (i.e., epidural anaesthesia, spinal anaesthesia, and combined spinal epidural anaesthesia), due to lack of direct comparative studies focusing on postoperative analgesia (GoR D). However, neuraxial anaesthesia techniques are recommended for safety reasons (e.g., neuraxial anaesthesia obviates the need for airway manipulation and avoids the postoperative sedative effects of general anaesthetics)
  • Consensus agreement 100% (9/9)

C-Section-Specific Evidence

  • Three studies comparing CSEA with EA showed a significant reduction in pain scores with CSEA during or after surgery but the results related to the time to first analgesic request were inconsistent Davies et al 1997 Click here for more information
  • A systematic review comparing the efficacy and side effects of SpA and EA showed no differences in unplanned interventions for pain relief postoperatively. However, there was an increased need for treatment for hypotension in women undergoing SpA Ng et al 2004
  • A systematic review comparing the effects of regional anaesthesia with those of GA showed (based upon one RCT) that the time to first request for analgesia was longer with EA compared with GA. There were no significant differences in the Apgar scores at 1, 5 and 10 min Afolabi and Lesi 2012
  • CSEA with epidural volume extension (EVE) was not superior to SpA in reducing intraoperative pain scores and the time to first analgesic request Lew et al 2004
  • One study showed a significant reduction in the time to first analgesic request for the SpA group compared with the CSEA group. However, there was no significant difference in supplemental analgesic use Thorén et al 1994
  • Two studies comparing EA with SpA showed inconsistent results related to pain scores and the need for supplemental analgesic use Paraskeva et al 2012 Click here for more information
  • Combined spinal-epidural anaesthesia (CSEA) vs epidural anaesthesia (EA) or spinal anaesthesia (SpA) study details Click here for more information
  • EA vs SpA study details Click here for more information
  • EA or SpA versus general anaesthesia (GA) study details Click here for more information
  • CSEA vs EA or SpA
  • EA vs SpA
  • EA or SpA vs GA

PROSPECT Recommendations

  • Intrathecal morphine below 200 µg is recommended if the patient has received spinal anaesthesia (GoR A) based on procedure-specific evidence for improved postoperative analgesia (LoE 1)
  • However, due to opioid-related side effects, including delayed respiratory depression, alternative analgesic techniques should be considered
  • Consensus agreement 100% (9/9)
  • Epidural opioids are recommended if the patient has received epidural anaesthesia (GoR A) based on procedure-specific evidence for improved postoperative analgesia (LoE 1)
  • However, due to opioid related side effects, including delayed respiratory depression, alternative analgesic techniques should be considered
  • Consensus agreement 100% (9/9)

C-Section-Specific Evidence: Epidural or IT Analgesia With Anaesthesia

  • IT ketamine 0.1 mg/kg added to spinal bupivacaine compared with bupivacaine alone prolonged intraoperative anaesthesia, increased the time to the first analgesic request and decreased the total analgesic consumption in the first 24 postoperative hours Khezri et al 2013
  • IT morphine 0.1 mg was superior in postoperative pain relief, supplemental need for analgesia and time to first analgesic request compared with IT fentanyl 25 µg, when combined with IT hyperbaric bupivacaine Siti Salmah and Choy 2009
  • In combination with SpA with 0.5% hyperbaric bupivacaine 10 mg, morphine 0.2 mg was associated with longer duration of analgesia and less requirement for supplementary analgesia compared with nalbuphine 0.2 mg, 0.8 mg or 1.6 mg Culebras et al 2000 Click here for more information
  • The combination of neostigmine 12.5 µg and morphine 50 µg administered with SpA with 0.5% hyperbaric bupivacaine 12 mg had a prolonged analgesic effect compared with either neostigmine or morphine alone Chung et al 1998 Click here for more information
  • For patients receiving IT morphine, the addition of diclofenac IM every 8 h compared to diclofenac IM only on request significantly reduced pain scores at 24 h, independent of the doses of IT morphine (0.1 mg, 0.05 mg, 0.025 mg) Cardoso et al 1998
  • A randomised controlled study comparing IT morphine 100 µg, IT morphine 200 µg and epidural morphine 3 mg showed no significant differences in postoperative pain scores and the time to first request for rescue analgesia Sarvela et al 2002
  • CSEA with hyperbaric bupivacaine plus sufentanil 5 µg and epidural lidocaine combined with either epidural morphine or IT morphine produced similar postoperative pain relief and similar time to first analgesic demand. However, women receiving epidural morphine had a decreased 24 h morphine consumption Dualé et al 2003
  • Similar pain relief was achieved with the administration of PCEA pethidine compared with IT morphine during surgery plus IV pethidine via PCA or IT morphine during surgery plus postoperative oral paracetamol and codeine. Patients receiving epidural pethidine had a trend for higher pain scores but also lower nausea and pruritus scores Paech et al 2000
  • Time to first analgesic request was significantly shorter following epidural diamorphine 3 mg (2 boluses) administration compared with IT morphine 0.2 mg. However, IT morphine was associated with higher incidence of PONV Caranza et al 1999
  • Women undergoing caesarean delivery with CSEA benefited from the additional administration of IT morphine (0.1 and 0.2 mg) to 15 mg of spinal levobupivacaine. It prolonged the time to the first analgesic request compared with saline; however, there were no significant differences in postoperative pain scores Unlugenc et al 2012
  • The coadministration of IT sufentanil 5 µg and IT morphine 100 µg was superior to IT sufentanil 5 µg plus a single injection of s.c. morphine 10 mg for postoperative pain relief and consumption of supplemental analgesia Draisci et al 2009
  • The administration of IT morphine 0.25 mg or 0.1 mg during SpA was superior to saline for postoperative pain relief. However, the higher dose of IT morphine was associated with significantly increased occurrence of pruritus Abboud et al 1988
  • The addition of IT morphine 0.2 mg to hyperbaric bupivacaine 0.5% for SpA compared with hyperbaric bupivacaine alone reduced postoperative pain scores, the need for additional analgesia and prolonged the time to first analgesic request Terajima et al 2003
  • Postoperative pain was significantly lower in a group receiving IT morphine added to SpA with bupivacaine than in a group receiving saline plus SpA. Morphine consumption was significantly lower in the IT morphine group Swart et al 1997
  • IT morphine 50 µg or 100 µg reduced pain scores, rescue analgesia requirements and increased the time to first request for rescue analgesics compared with no IT morphine Mikuni et al 2010 Click here for more information
  • The time to first PCA demand was longer in each of four groups receiving IT morphine (0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4 mg) in combination with SpA bupivacaine than in the control group (0 mg morphine). The IT morphine groups showed a significantly lower total PCA morphine demand in the first 24 hours than the control group. There were no significant differences between mean VAS scores Girgin et al 2008
  • The combination of IT morphine 0.2 mg with spinal bupivacaine compared with spinal bupivacaine alone prolonged the time to first analgesic request. However, women receiving IT morphine reported nausea and pruritus significantly more often Abouleish et al 1988
  • Fewer patients receiving IT morphine 100 µg during surgery requested supplemental analgesia compared with patients receiving postoperative oral oxycodone, but there was no significant difference in pain scores or consumption of supplemental analgesia and IT morphine was associated with a higher incidence of pruritus McDonnell et al 2010 Click here for more information
  • The addition of dextromethorphan to different doses of IT morphine was not superior to placebo combined with the same doses of IT morphine for pain relief. Higher doses of morphine were associated with a significantly increased incidence of PONV and pruritus Choi et al 2003
  • Spinal morphine 0.1 mg combined with IV ketorolac was not superior to different doses of spinal morphine (0.1 mg or 0.2 mg) or IV ketorolac alone in terms of pain relief and time to first analgesic request Cohen et al 1996
  • The administration of IT fentanyl 25 µg was superior to IT ketamine 0.05 mg/kg, both added to plain bupivacaine for spinal analgesia, for providing postoperative pain relief and prolonging the time to first analgesic request Unlugenc et al 2006
  • The addition of IT fentanyl 0, 5, 10 or 25 µg to SpA with IT morphine showed no difference in postoperative morphine consumption via PCA. However, pain scores were higher in women receiving fentanyl 5, 10 and 25 µg compared with 0 µg Carvalho et al 2012
  • IT ketamine study details Click here for more information
  • IT or epidural opioids study details
  • Other regimens
  • Comparisons of different IT opioid regimens
  • IT opioid vs epidural opioid
  • IT opioid vs placebo/control or systemic opioid
  • IT ketamine with spinal LA
  • There were no significant differences between groups receiving either morphine 0.1 mg or 0.2 mg combined with IT 0.5% bupivacaine 2.5 mL in VAS pain scores and time to first analgesic request Milner et al 1996
  • The comparison of either IT morphine 0.1 mg or diamorphine 0.25 mg in combination with SpA using hyperbaric bupivacaine and fentanyl 12.5 µg showed no differences in postoperative pain relief, time of first PCA use or cumulative morphine requirement postoperatively Barkshire et al 2001

C-Section-Specific Evidence: Epidural Analgesia Continued After Anaesthesia

  • The administration of epidural fentanyl via PCA was superior to IV morphine via PCA in pain scores at rest 4 and 8 h, but not at recovery, 12 and 21 h as well as in lower pain scores on coughing at 4, 8 and 21 h, but not at remaining assessment times. The incidence of PONV and drowsiness was significantly lower in patients receiving epidural fentanyl via PCA Cooper et al 1999
  • The duration of analgesia was significantly longer in patients receiving epidural buprenorphine plus bupivacaine in comparison to patients receiving epidural bupivacaine plus clonidine and it was the lowest in patients receiving epidural bupivacaine alone Agarwal et al 2010
  • Ropivacaine plus fentanyl administered by PCEA was superior to ropivacaine alone for pain scores and supplemental analgesics. But patients receiving ropivacaine plus fentanyl reported pruritus significantly more frequently Buggy et al 2000
  • PCEA meperidine was significantly superior to IM meperidine for pain relief. The incidence of nausea and pruritus was similar between the two groups Yarnell et al 1992
  • The combination of epidural morphine 2 mg plus diclofenac sodium 75 mg IM was superior to epidural morphine 2 mg plus saline solution IM and to epidural saline plus diclofenac 75 mg IM for pain relief. However, patients receiving epidural morphine experienced PONV and pruritus significantly more often Sun et al 1992
  • The administration of epidural diamorphine was superior to IV diamorphine via PCA for pain scores at 1 and 2 h, but not between 4 and 48 h. The incidence of pruritus and PONV was similar between the two groups Stoddart et al 1993
  • The duration of analgesia was significantly longer in patients receiving epidural diamorphine 3 mg compared with IM morphine 10 mg. However, only the pain score at 5 hours was lower in the diamorphine group Stevens et al 1991
  • There was no significant difference between the incidence of PONV, sedation and dizziness in the epidural pethidine group and IM pethidine group. However, patients receiving epidural pethidine had lower pain scores during the first 2 h Perriss et al 1990
  • The administration of epidural meperidine via PCA was superior to IV meperidine via PCA for pain, sedation and satisfaction scores Paech et al 1994
  • PCEA administration reduced drug consumption within 24 h compared with IV PCA administration for both pethidine and fentanyl. The number of PCA demands was lower with pethidine than fentanyl. Patients preferred PCEA to IV PCA administration for pethidine but not fentanyl Ngan Kee et al 1997
  • The administration of sufentanil PCEA was superior to morphine iPCA in reducing pain at rest at 30 min and 2 h, but not between 6 h and POD 2 and in reducing pain on movement at POD 2, but not on POD 1. The incidence of PONV was similar between the two groups, but patients receiving epidural sufentanil experienced pruritus significantly more frequently Grass et al 1994
  • Epidural morphine was superior to IM morphine in pain relief and the need for morphine consumption. The two groups were similar in the occurrence of PONV and pruritus Daley et al 1990
  • Fentanyl (20 µg, 10 min lockout) administered via PCEA compared with the same dose via IV PCA resulted in lower pain scores at rest at 8, 12, 24 h, but not at 0.5 and 4 h and in lower pain scores on coughing at 8 and 12 h, but not at remaining points in time. There was no significant difference in PONV between the two groups, but patients receiving fentanyl via PCEA experienced pruritus significantly more frequently Cooper et al 1995
  • Epidural fentanyl was associated with lower postoperative pain scores and a lower incidence of PONV than IV fentanyl Cohen et al 2002
  • Epidural morphine 5 mg compared with IV morphine 5 mg was superior for reducing the need for supplemental analgesics and prolonging the time to first analgesic request. However, significantly more patients receiving epidural morphine experienced pruritus Cohen and Woods 1983
  • There were no significant differences in pain scores, morphine consumption and time to first analgesic request between butorphanol 2 mg IV (with epidural saline) and epidural butorphanol 2 mg (plus saline IV), but both regimens provided superior analgesia to saline placebo in the first 2 h postoperatively Camann et al 1992
  • A systematic review of RCTs comparing epidural morphine with parenteral opioids showed that a single bolus of epidural morphine provides better pain relief than parenteral opioids but with an effect limited to the POD 1 and with an increase in morphine side effects Bonnet et al 2010
  • Epidural morphine was superior to placebo for pain relief, duration of pain relief and reduction of additional analgesics. However, patients in the morphine group reported pruritus significantly more frequently Binsted 1983
  • Epidural fentanyl plus bupivacaine was associated with reduced fentanyl consumption in 48 h compared with epidural fentanyl alone Cohen et al 2002
  • The administration of fentanyl or bupivacaine plus fentanyl administered via PCEA was superior to bupivacaine alone via PCEA in pain scores at rest at 12 h, but not at 0.5, 4, 8 and 24 h. There were no significant differences between the three groups in pain scores on coughing at any assessment time. However, the incidence of pruritus was significantly lower in patients receiving only bupivacaine compared with the two other groups Cooper et al 1996
  • Epidural morphine 2 mg twice per day for 3 days was not superior to 0.1% ropivacaine administered by PCEA (5 mg bolus, 15 min lockout, with 3 mg/h background infusion, <60 mg/4 h) for 3 days in pain relief and supplemental analgesic request. Moreover, epidural morphine was associated with significantly higher incidence of nausea, vomiting and pruritus Chen et al 2011
  • The duration of analgesia was significantly longer in patients receiving epidural buprenorphine plus bupivacaine in comparison to patients receiving epidural bupivacaine plus clonidine and it was the lowest in patients receiving epidural bupivacaine alone Agarwal et al 2010
  • No significant additive or synergistic interactions were observed between the administration of epidural fentanyl, epidural clonidine and combined epidural fentanyl plus clonidine with regards to morphine given via iPCA Eisenach et al 1994
  • Epidural opioid vs IT opioid study details Click here for more information
  • Epidural opioids vs systemic opioids/placebo study details
    Click here for more information
  • Epidural clonidine study details Click here for more information
  • Comparative studies of different epidural opioids study details Click here for more information
  • Epidural opioid +/- LA vs epidural opioid or LA study details Click here for more information
  • Epidural opioid vs IT opioid
  • Epidural opioids vs systemic opioids/placebo
  • Comparative studies of different opioids
  • Epidural clonidine
  • Epidural opioid +/- LA vs epidural opioid or LA
  • Epidural morphine was superior to epidural fentanyl for duration of analgesia. However patients that received fentanyl had significantly lower pain scores during the first two hours, but not afterwards Blanco et al 1987
  • The comparison of patients receiving epidural fentanyl intraoperatively and epidural fentanyl via PCEA after surgery with patients receiving epidural morphine during surgery and saline via PCEA afterwards showed no significant difference for pain relief Yu and Gambling 1993
  • Epidural sufentanil delivered by PCA with a concomitant infusion of either sufentanil or saline produced similar pain scores overall, with significantly less pain at 6 h in the sufentanil infusion group, but not at 0,12, 18 and 24h. The incidence of PONV did not differ between the groups Vercauteren et al 1995
  • The epidural administration of morphine bolus (5 mg) and subsequent saline infusion for 24 h compared with morphine bolus (2.6 mg) and subsequent morphine infusion (0.1 mL/h, 5 mg/24 h) produced similar pain scores and occurrence of side effects Sharar et al 1991
  • Epidural meperidine 30 mg (10 mg/mL) followed by epidural meperidine via PCA for 24 h (group 1) produced higher pain scores between 8 and 16 h compared with epidural morphine 3 mg (1 mg/mL) followed by saline via PCA for 24 h (group 2) or epidural morphine 3 mg (1 mg/mL) without saline PCEA (group 3). However, women receiving epidural morphine (groups 2 and 3) experienced nausea and pruritus more frequently Rosaeg et al 1994
  • PCEA administration reduced drug consumption within 24 h compared with IV PCA administration for both pethidine and fentanyl. The number of PCA demands was lower with pethidine than fentanyl. Patients preferred PCEA to IV PCA administration for pethidine but not fentanyl Ngan Kee et al 1997
  • The epidural administration of morphine 4 mg and combination of morphine 2 mg plus sufentanil 25 µg was superior compared to sufentanil 50 µg in pain relief between 2 and 12 h, but not before. Patients receiving sufentanil 50 µg required more frequent supplementary analgesia. The incidence of pruritus and PONV did not differ between the three groups; however, dizziness was only observed in patients receiving sufentanil alone or in combination with morphine Dottrens et al 1992
  • Epidural butorphanol produced a longer duration of analgesia with less pruritus than epidural sufentanil, but pain scores of patients receiving sufentanil were significantly lower Bansal et al 2009
  • The duration of analgesia was significantly longer in patients receiving epidural morphine compared with epidural fentanyl, buprenorphine or butorphanol. However, the incidence of pruritus was significantly higher in the morphine and fentanyl groups Ackerman et al 1989
  • Epidural butorphanol (1 mg, or 2 mg, or 4 mg) provided significantly faster pain relief compared with 5 mg epidural morphine, but the duration of pain relief and the time before remedication was significantly longer in patients receiving morphine instead of butorphanol Abboud et al 1987
  • The administration of PCEA pethidine compared with IT morphine during surgery plus IV pethidine via PCA or IT morphine during surgery plus postoperative oral paracetamol and codeine produced similar pain relief at most time points. Patients receiving epidural pethidine had a trend towards higher pain scores but also lower nausea and pruritus scores Paech et al 2000

C-Section-Specific Evidence: IT Analgesia Continued After Anaesthesia

  • IT morphine was superior to wound infiltration with ropivacaine or placebo for reducing the consumption of supplemental analgesics Kainu et al 2012 Click here for more information
  • IT opioid versus LA wound infiltration or placebo study details Click here for more information
  • IT opioid vs epidural opioid study details Click here for more information
  • IT opioid vs LA wound infiltration or placebo
  • IT opioid vs epidural opioid
  • The administration of PCEA pethidine compared with IT morphine during surgery plus IV pethidine via PCA or IT morphine during surgery plus postoperative oral paracetamol and codeine produced similar pain relief at most time points. Patients receiving epidural pethidine had a trend towards higher pain scores but also lower nausea and pruritus scores Paech et al 2000

PROSPECT Recommendations

  • Neuraxial clonidine is not recommended (GoR D), although procedure-specific evidence suggests it provides superior analgesia, because of side effects (e.g. hypotension)
  • Consensus agreement 100% (9/9)

C-Section-Specific Evidence

  • The comparison of three doses of IT clonidine (150 µg, 300 µg and 450 µg) demonstrated a dose-dependent effect. A higher dose was significantly associated with lower pain scores and a delayed request for supplemental analgesics Filos et al 1994
  • Epidural infusion of clonidine (400 µg bolus plus 10 µg/h) and (800 µg bolus plus 20 µg/h) compared with placebo prolonged the time to first analgesic request. Only the high-dose clonidine group needed less morphine via iPCA compared with the placebo group Mendez et al 1990
  • Analgesia with bupivacaine (0.06 mg/cm body height) plus clonidine (75 µg) or plus clonidine and fentanyl (12.5 µg) was superior to bupivacaine alone. Time to first analgesic request was significantly prolonged following anaesthesia with bupivacaine, clonidine and fentanyl compared with the other groups. Intraoperative nausea-vomiting was more frequent in the group given bupivacaine alone Benhamou et al 1998
  • The administration of IT clonidine 150 µg was superior to placebo in terms of postoperative pain relief and time to first analgesic request. However, the side effects sedation, hypotension and dryness of mouth were more frequent in the clonidine group Filos et al 1992
  • Spinal bupivacaine combined with sufentanil 2 µg and 75 µg clonidine was superior to sufentanil 2 µg alone and 150 µg clonidine alone in the time to first analgesic request. However, there was no significant difference among the three groups in postoperative pain scores and in the need for supplemental analgesia Lavand'homme et al 2008
  • Spinal anaesthesia with a combination of subarachnoid morphine100 µg and clonidine at different doses compared with subarachnoid morphine100 µg alone or clonidine 150 µg alone significantly improves postoperative pain relief, but increases intraoperative sedation Paech et al 2004
  • Spinal bupivacaine plus clonidine 75 µg was superior in terms of duration of postoperative analgesia compared with spinal bupivacaine plus fentanyl 25 µg without any increase in maternal side effects Singh et al 2013
  • Spinal anaesthesia with bupivacaine 0.5% (2.2 mL) plus clonidine 75 µg was superior to bupivacaine 0.5% (2.2 mL) alone in time to first analgesic request and pain score at 1h, but not on 24h, without significant maternal and neonatal side-effects van Tuijl et al 2006
  • Neuraxial clonidine study details Click here for more information

PROSPECT Recommendations

  • Transverse abdominal incision is recommended over vertical incision (GoR A, LoE 1). Amongst transverse incisions the Joel-Cohen incision and similar modifications are superior to the Pfannenstiel incision for outcomes related to postoperative pain (GoR A, LoE 1)
  • Consensus agreement 100% (9/9)

C-Section-Specific Evidence

  • Joel-Cohen-based compared with Pfannenstiel caesarean section techniques were associated with lower duration of postoperative pain and with less use of analgesia Hofmeyr et al 2008
  • The Joel-Cohen incision was significantly superior to the Pfannenstiel incision for operative time, postoperative pain, postoperative need for supplemental analgesia, time to get out from bed and time to walk straight without support Abuelghar et al 2013
  • A systematic review of RCTs comparing different abdominal incisions showed that the Joel-Cohen incision was superior to the Pfannenstiel approach in reducing postoperative analgesic requirements, total dose of analgesia in the first 24 h and in increasing the time to first analgesic request Mathai et al 2013
  • A systematic review showed that there is little information available to inform the choice of the most appropriate surgical technique for uterine incision and uterine closure to adopt Dodd et al 2008
  • Surgical techniques study details Click here for more information

PROSPECT Recommendations

  • Non-closure of the peritoneum is recommended (GoR A) based on procedure-specific evidence for postoperative analgesia (LoE 1)
  • Consensus agreement 100% (9/9)

C-Section-Specific Evidence

  • A systematic review evaluating the effects of non-closure as an alternative to closure of the peritoneum showed that the number of postoperative analgesic doses was reduced in the peritoneal non-closure group Bamigboye and Hofmeyr 2003
  • Non-closure of both the visceral and the parietal peritoneum produced a significant reduction in pain scores and need for supplemental analgesia compared with closure Tabasi et al 2013
  • Non-closure and closure of the parietal peritoneum showed no differences in duration of surgery and postoperative pain scores. However, the non-closure group had a significantly reduced requirement for supplemental analgesia as well as shorter time to mobilisation and oral intake Altinbas et al 2013
  • Parietal peritoneal non-closure was associated with significantly lower pain scores and morphine consumption compared with closure Shahin et al 2009
  • Non-closure versus closure study details Click here for more information

PROSPECT Recommendations

  • No recommendation can be made with respect to skin closure techniques, as there is no effect on postoperative analgesia (GoR A, LoE 1)
  • Consensus agreement 100% (9/9)

C-Section-Specific Evidence

  • A systematic review assessing different effects of skin closure techniques and materials showed no conclusive evidence about how the skin should be closed after caesarean section Mackeen et al 2012
  • Techniques and materials for skin closure study details Click here for more information

PROSPECT Recommendations

  • Post-delivery NSAIDs are recommended (GoR A) based on procedure-specific evidence (LoE 1), even in breastfeeding women (LoE 3)
  • Consensus agreement 100% (9/9)

C-Section-Specific Evidence

  • Rectal naproxen followed by oral naproxen compared with placebo reduced postoperative pain scores, especially on the first day after surgery, reduced the need for additional analgesics and prolonged the time to first analgesic request Angle et al 2002
  • There were no significant differences in postoperative pain scores and supplemental analgesic use between the intravenous paracetamol group versus oral ibuprofen group Alhashemi et al 2006
  • Postoperative ketorolac 30 mg IM and postoperative pethidine 75 mg IM showed similar analgesic efficacy and time to first analgesic request, although more side-effects were noted in the pethidine group Gin et al 1993
  • The administration of diclofenac 75 mg IM every 12 h for 2 doses compared to no intervention reduced the need for rescue analgesia and produced significantly lower pain scores Surakarn and Tannirandorn 2009
  • The combination of epidural morphine 2 mg plus diclofenac sodium 75 mg IM was superior to epidural morphine 2 mg plus saline solution IM and to epidural saline plus diclofenac 75 mg IM for pain relief. However, patients receiving epidural morphine experienced PONV and pruritus significantly more often Sun et al 1992
  • Diclofenac suppository 100 mg after surgery followed by 3 additional doses at 8 h intervals was superior to pethidine 1 mg/kg IM after surgery followed by three additional doses at 8 h intervals for pain relief at 10 h, 18 h and 26 h, but not at 2 h. The incidence of PONV was similar between the two groups, but patients receiving pethidine reported dizziness significantly more frequently Soroori et al 2006
  • Diclofenac rectally plus propacetamol IV or diclofenac rectally provided more effective analgesia compared with placebo or propacetamol IV alone Siddik et al 2001 Click here for more information
  • The administration of intravenous ketorolac (</=120 mg/day) compared with placebo reduced the consumption of meperidine for 24 h, but not afterwards. The pain relief was similar between the two groups Pavy et al 2001
  • Rectal indomethacin significantly reduced pain scores and prolonged the time to first analgesic request compared with placebo Pavy et al 1995
  • Administration of rectal diclofenac (3x 50 mg) was superior to placebo for reducing the need for supplemental analgesia. Postoperative pain was lower in patients receiving diclofenac during the first 3 h, but not afterwards Olofsson et al 2000
  • The postoperative administration of paracetamol and diclofenac was not superior to diclofenac alone and to paracetamol alone in pain scores at rest and on movement. However, patients receiving the combination of paracetamol and diclofenac needed significantly less morphine given via iPCA compared with paracetamol alone, but not compared with diclofenac. The groups did not differ in time to first independent ambulation Munishankar et al 2008
  • The use of diclofenac suppository 100 mg compared to no suppository reduced the need for ropivacaine and fentanyl given via PCEA from 6 to 18 h, but not from 0 to 6 h and not from 18 to 24 h. There was no significant difference between the two group in pain scores on movement Lim et al 2001
  • Rectal diclofenac 100 mg every 12 h led to less morphine consumption compared with placebo. However, pain scores were similar between the two groups Dahl et al 2002
  • For patients receiving IT morphine, the addition of diclofenac IM every 8 h compared to diclofenac IM only on request significantly reduced pain scores at 24 h, independent of the doses of IT morphine (0.1 mg, 0.05 mg, 0.025 mg) Cardoso et al 1998
  • The administration of oral valdecoxib 20 mg every 12 h for 72 h compared with placebo was not superior in pain relief, need for supplemental analgesics and time to first analgesic request Carvalho et al 2006
  • Spinal morphine 0.1 mg combined with IV ketorolac was not superior to different doses of spinal morphine (0.1 mg or 0.2 mg) or IV ketorolac alone in terms of pain relief and time to first analgesic request Cohen et al 1996
  • The administration of subcutaneous pethidine 1 mg/kg followed by subcutaneous pethidine 1 mg/kg with metoclopramide 10 mg IM every 8 h for three days was superior to oral diclofenac sodium 75 mg twice daily in terms of the need for rescue analgesia. However, both groups were not different in pain scores and incidence of PONV Marzida 2009
  • NSAIDs study details Click here for more information

PROSPECT Recommendations

  • Ketamine cannot be recommended at this time (GoR D) based on inconsistent procedure-specific evidence
  • Consensus agreement 100% (9/9)

C-Section-Specific Evidence

  • The administration of IV low-dose ketamine as an adjuvant to bupivacaine for spinal anaesthesia was associated with longer postoperative analgesia and a reduced need for analgesia consumption than bupivacaine alone Menkiti et al 2012
  • IV low-dose ketamine combined with IT bupivacaine provided better pain relief and lower postoperative analgesic consumption than bupivacaine alone Sen et al 2005
  • The administration of IV ketamine 0.2 mg/kg before the induction of anaesthesia decreased postoperative pain scores, the need for supplemental analgesia and prolonged the time to first analgesic request Ghazi-Saidi and Hajipour 2002
  • Women receiving IM S-ketamine 0.5 mg/kg followed by a 2 µg/kg/min IV continuous infusion over 12 h had a prolonged time to first analgesic request and a reduced cumulative morphine consumption compared with placebo. However, ketamine was associated with a significantly increased incidence of drowsiness, diplopia, nystagmus, dizziness, light-headness, positive dysphoria and vomiting Suppa et al 2012
  • The addition of IV ketamine compared to placebo for postoperative analgesia showed no benefit in time to first analgesic request, incidence of breakthrough pain and supplemental analgesics Bauchat et al 2011
  • The IV use of different doses of ketamine (0.25 mg/kg, 0.5 mg/kg, 1 mg/kg) compared with placebo produced similar postoperative pain scores and need for supplemental analgesia Bilgen et al 2012
  • Intraoperative IV ketamine (0.5 mg/kg) compared with placebo had no effect on pain relief and morphine consumption between 2 and 24 h Reza et al 2010
  • The administration of IV ketamine 0.5 mg/kg before the skin incision and infused continually at 0.25 mg/kg/h until the end of surgery was not superior to placebo in postoperative pain relief and supplemental fentanyl consumption Han et al 2013
  • Ketamine study details Click here for more information

PROSPECT Recommendations

  • Systemic opioids provide effective analgesia (GoR A, LoE 1), but are only recommended as rescue analgesics due to side effects (GoR D)
  • Consensus agreement 100% (9/9)

C-Section-Specific Evidence

  • Oral opioid vs IT opioid Click here for more information
  • The administration of subcutaneous pethidine 1 mg/kg followed by subcutaneous pethidine 1 mg/kg with metoclopramide 10 mg IM every 8 h for three days was superior to oral diclofenac sodium 75 mg twice daily for the need for rescue analgesia. However, both groups were not different in pain scores and incidence of PONV Marzida 2009
  • Oral oxycodone and IT morphine were similar for postoperative pain scores, but fewer patients receiving IT morphine requested supplemental analgesia McDonnell et al 2010 Click here for more information
  • Postoperative ketorolac 30 mg IM and postoperative pethidine 75 mg IM showed similar analgesic efficacy and time to first analgesic request, although more side-effects were noted in the pethidine group Gin et al 1993
  • Diclofenac suppository 100 mg after surgery followed by another three doses at 8 h intervals was superior to pethidine 1 mg/kg IM after surgery followed by another three doses at 8 h intervals for pain relief at 10 h, 18 h and 26 h, but not at 2 h. The incidence of PONV was similar between the two groups, but patients receiving pethidine experienced dizziness significantly more frequently Soroori et al 2006
  • Oral opioid versus IT opioid study details Click here for more information
  • Systemic opioid versus conventional NSAID study details Click here for more information
  • Systemic opioid: route of administration study details Click here for more information
  • Systemic opioid vs NSAID
  • Systemic opioid: route of administration
  • Transnasal butorphanol was superior to butorphanol IV in terms of quality and duration of analgesia Abboud et al 1991 Click here for more information
  • Pain relief was significantly greater in the group receiving oral oxycodone-paracetamol compared with the group receiving morphine via iPCA for 12 h and oral oxycodone-paracetamol after 12 h Davis et al 2006
  • The administration of piritramide via iPCA versus oral oxycodone was similar in terms of pain scores, need for supplemental anagesics and in the incidence of PONV Dieterich et al 2012
  • Subcutaneous and IM morphine produced a similar incidence of side effects and pain scores at rest, but pain scores on movement were reduced in the subcutaneous morphine group at 12, 16 and 20 h Safavi and Honarmand 2007

PROSPECT Recommendations

  • Post-delivery paracetamol is recommended (GoR A) based on procedure-specific evidence (LoE 1)
  • Consensus agreement 100% (9/9)

C-Section-Specific Evidence

  • There were no significant differences in postoperative pain scores and supplemental analgesic use between the IV paracetamol group and the oral ibuprofen group
  • The administration of IV paracetamol at the end of surgery and every 6 h for 24 h was superior to placebo for pain scores at 6, 12 and 24 h and for consumption of rescue analgesia Omar and Issa 2011
  • The postoperative administration of paracetamol and diclofenac was not superior to diclofenac alone and to paracetamol alone in pain scores at rest and on movement. However, patients receiving the combination of paracetamol and diclofenac needed significantly less morphine given via iPCA compared with paracetamol alone, but not compared with diclofenac. The groups did not differ in time to first independent ambulation Munishankar et al 2008
  • Paracetamol study details Click here for more information

PROSPECT Recommendations

  • Bilateral iliohypogastric and ilioinguinal blocks are recommended (GoR A) based on procedure-specific evidence for postoperative analgesia (LoE 1)
  • Consensus agreement 100% (9/9)

C-Section-Specific Evidence

  • In a systematic review, abdominal nerve blocks were found to reduce pain scores and postoperative opioid requirements vs placebo/no block Bamigboye and Hofmeyr 2009
  • An iliohypogastric-ilioinguinal peripheral nerve block using 0.5% bupivacaine 24 mL compared to saline decreased pain scores and delayed the first request for analgesia Wolfson et al 2012
  • Ilioinguinal and iliohypogastric nerve block with 0.5% ropivacaine was superior to nerve block with saline for pain scores at rest at 6, 8, 12, and 24 h and with movement at 6 and 8 h and led to a decreased supplemental analgesia need without increasing side effects Sakalli et al 2010
  • Ilioinguinal nerve block with 0.5% bupivacaine was superior to no nerve block for pain scores at 0, 4, 8 and 24 h while consumption of supplemental analgesia was decreased Bunting and McConachie 1988
  • Ilioinguinal and iliohypogastric nerve block under ultrasound guidance compared with placebo did not improve postoperative analgesia or decrease postoperative analgesic requirements Vallejo et al 2012
  • Iliohypogastric and ilioinguinal blocks study details Click here for more information

PROSPECT Recommendations

  • Bilateral TAP blocks are recommended (GoR A) based on procedure-specific evidence for postoperative analgesia (LoE 1)
  • Consensus agreement 100% (9/9)

C-Section-Specific Evidence

  • US-guided TAP block compared with no block significantly reduced postoperative morphine consumption. There were no differences between the groups in pain scores at rest and on moving, sedation level and PONV Tan et al 2012
  • TAP block compared with no block significantly reduced postoperative tramadol consumption, postoperative pain scores at rest and on coughing Eslamian et al 2012
  • A systematic review comparing TAP block with placebo showed inconsistent results concerning time to first analgesic request, postoperative opioid consumption and postoperative pain scores Fusco et al 2014
  • Spinal morphine 100 µg, but not TAP block, improved postoperative pain relief. The additional use of bilateral TAP block with bupivacaine 2 mg/kg combined with spinal morphine did not further improve postoperative pain relief McMorrow et al 2011
  • TAP block study details Click here for more information

PROSPECT Recommendations

  • TENS is not recommended (GoR D) based on limited procedure-specific evidence
  • Consensus agreement 78% (7/9)

C-Section-Specific Evidence

  • IV morphine-PCA combined with Hi-TENS significantly reduced the consumption of morphine compared with IV morphine-PCA alone. However, there were no significant differences in pain scores between the two groups Binder et al 2011
  • TENS versus placebo-TENS was superior for pain relief at rest and on movement. There was no difference in the request for additional analgesics Smith et al 1986
  • TENS was superior to placebo-TENS for pain relief at 8 h after delivery and associated with a reduced need for supplemental analgesia Kayman-Kose et al 2014
  • TENS study details Click here for more information

PROSPECT Recommendations

  • Wound infiltration with local anaesthetics is recommended (GoR A) based on procedure-specific evidence (LoE 1)
  • Consensus agreement 100% (9/9)
  • Wound infiltration with NSAIDs is not recommended at this time (GoR D) due to limited comparative data with systemic administration
  • Consensus agreement 89% (8/9)
  • Continuous wound infusion with local anaesthetics is recommended (GoR A) based on procedure-specific evidence (LoE 1)
  • Consensus agreement 100% (9/9)
  • Continuous wound infusion with NSAIDs is not recommended (GoR D) based on limited procedure-specific evidence
  • Consensus agreement 100% (9/9)

C-Section-Specific Evidence

  • In a systematic review, wound infiltration with LA reduced opioid use compared with control Bamigboye and Hofmeyr 2009
  • Combined pre- plus post-incisional local wound infiltration with lidocaine was superior to either pre-incisional or post-incisional local wound infiltration alone in postoperative pain scores Fouladi et al 2013
  • The addition of ketorolac to subcutaneous wound instillation of bupivacaine compared with bupivacaine resulted in lower pain scores on movement, but not at rest. However, the addition of hydromorphone to LA wound instillation did not significantly decrease postoperative pain scores at all. The use of supplemental analgesics was significantly lower in the group with additional ketorolac compared to the only bupivacaine group Carvalho et al 2013
  • Ropivacaine wound instillation via an elastometric pump was superior to sterile water in the reduction of postoperative morphine consumption. Pain scores at rest did not differ between the groups during the first 6 h. However, patients receiving ropivacaine had lower pain scores during coughing and leg raising between 3 and 6 h, but not before Fredman et al 2000
  • Continuous wound infusion with ropivacaine for 48 h was superior to epidural morphine for postoperative pain at rest and on movement. Patients receiving epidural morphine experienced significantly more PONV, pruritus and urinary retention O'Neill et al 2012
  • Wound infiltration with tramadol or levobupivacaine was superior to saline for the consumption of supplemental analgesia and for pain relief at 15 min, but not between 2 and 24 h Demiraran et al 2013
  • Continuous wound infusion for 48 h with 0.5% ropivacaine and ketoprofen through a multiholed wound catheter inserted below the fascia resulted in a reduced need for supplemental morphine compared with administration above the fascia. The groups did not differ in pain scores at movement. However, patients receiving administration below the fascia reported lower pain scores at 3, 6, 12, 24 and 36 h, but not at 48 h Rackelboom et al 2010
  • Subcutaneous surgical wound infiltration with bupivacaine 5 mg/mL compared with saline at 2 mL/h for 24 h resulted in similar postoperative pain scores and need for supplemental and rescue analgesia Carvalho et al 2010
  • IT morphine was superior to wound infiltration with ropivacaine or placebo for reducing the consumption of supplemental analgesics Kainu et al 2012 Click here for more information
  • Epidural levobupivacaine was superior to levobupivacaine administered via subfascial catheter in reducing pain scores at rest during the first 4 hours, but not afterwards. However, pain scores at walking and consumption for opioids were similar between the groups Ranta et al 2006
  • The IV system with morphine 10 mg and ketorolac 120 mg was more effective than continuous infusion of 0.2% levobupivacaine in reducing the need for supplemental analgesic and in reducing pain scores Magnani et al 2006
  • Wound infiltration or infusion study details Click here for more information